Psychology Notes Part Three

Chapter 6 Learning Realize the importance of learning for humans since, unlike many animals (spiders & fruit flies), we have few instincts and even important behaviors (such as sex) must be learned. Learning refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience. o Learning includes the acquisition of knowledge and skills ? Shapes personal habits ? Nail biting ? Personality traits ? Shyness ? Emotional responses ? Fears of storms ? Personal Preferences ? Taste for food or dislike o Much of your behavior is the result of learning Be able to define and differentiate between habituation and adaptation. ? Adaptation- An inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged; Adaptation involves a decrease in sensitivity of sense organ o ? Not able to smell aftershave after 10 minutes ? Habituation- A gradual reduction in the strength of a response when a stimulus event is presented repeatedly; Habituation involves a decrease and end of behavior: o Orienting Response o Startle Response Some stimuli are much are to habituation: Intense (i.e. loud) Unpredictable Occur at night Realize that any other learning would be impossible without these basic types of learning. Understand, be able to identify examples of, and be able to diagram classical conditioning. Classical Conditioning- is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus o First described around 1900 by Ivan Pavlov- aka Pavlovian Conditioning ? Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate when a tone was presented o Mainly regulates involuntary, reflexive responses ? Emotional Responses? Fears ? Physiological Responses? Immunosuppression ( Suppression of a healthy immune response) Know the names and the function of the: Neutral Stimulus- The object or thing that does not originally produce a response • Bell started as the neutral stimulus. Did not originally produce the response of salivation. o However, then Pavlov changed this by pairing the tone with a stimulus (meat powder) that did produce the salivation response. Unconditioned stimulus- (UCS) is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. ? UCS (meat powder) ? UCR (salivation) Conditioned stimulus- (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response • The CS=Bell was once a neutral stimulus but after being conditioned it soon became the thing that would make the dog salivate. Unconditioned response- (UCR) is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning ? UCS (meat powder) ? UCR (salivation) Conditioned response—(CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. • CR (salivation) was learned through the tone, so that when the bell was rung the dog would salivate. Be able to define and recognize examples of the following classical conditioning phenomena: Extinction- The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency • What leads to extinction? The consistent presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, without the unconditioned stimulus. • When Pavlov consistently presented only the tone to a previously conditioned dog, the tone gradually lost its capacity to elicit the response of salivation. Spontaneous recovery- Is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus. • Pavlov fully extinguished a dog’s CR of salivation to a tone and then returned the dog to its home cage for a “rest interval” (period of nonexposure to the CS). Then on the next day, when the dog was brought back to the experimental chamber for retesting, the tone was sounded and the salivation response reappeared. Generalization- Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. • Pavlov’s dogs might have salivated in response to a different sounding tone Discrimination- Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. • When pet runs around excited whenever it hears your car pull into driveway. Initially it will probably respond to all cars that pull into the driveway, However if there is anything distinctive about your car, your dog may gradually respond with excitement to only your car and not to other cars. Operant Conditioning is on of the most important sections in the text Operant Conditioning- Is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled b their consequences. • By B. F. Skinner, term was derived from his belief that in this type of responding, an organism “operates: on the environment instead of simply reacting to stimuli. Learning occurs because responses come to be influenced by the outcomes that follow them. • Operant Conditioning= Is a form of learning in which responses come be controlled by their consequences Know Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Another name for operant conditioning is instrumental learning? Term introduced by Edward Thorndike (1913) o Wanted to emphasize that this type of learning is often instrumental in obtaining some desired outcome ? Work provided foundation for many ideas proposed by Skinner ? Began doing animal learning o Conducted studies? Problem solving in cats ? Hungry cat, in small box with food available on other side, cat could escape to obtain the food by performing a specific response, such as pulling wire. Thorndike measured how long took cat to get out of box o Law of Effect- if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened Know the changes that Skinner made when he defined reinforcement by its effect on behavior. -Skinner Demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences • This fundamental principle embodied in skinner’s concept of • Reinforcement- Occurs when an even following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response=A response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding consequences • Skinner said that everyday behavior is regulated by reinforcement. Be able to define and recognize examples of the following types of reinforcement. Positive Reinforcement Primary Reinforcers- Are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs -Given Species has limited # of primary reinforcers bc they are closely tied to physiological needs. • Humans? Food, water, warmth, sex, & affection Secondary Reinforcer- aka conditioned reinforcers are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers -Depend on learning • Humans? Money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause. o Most material things that people work hard to earn are secondary reinforcers. Backup Reinforcers -Learned reinforces ?A….B...D- (want good grades, learned to get good grades so you can) Loss of effectiveness: Satiation-You have more then you want, you have too much ? Thanksgiving ate too much “Get pumpkin pie if you clean dishes”, not a good reinforcer Unpaired with backup ? Get good job out of college, boss comments on your good performance, but if it continues, you will eventually want more Generalized Reinforcer - learned -Paired with many backups -People never satiate to them -People take major risks for these Reinforcers Negative Reinforcement -The removal of an aversive stimulus that results in an increase in the rate of that behavior - Rat in Skinner box - Most Human relations Anytime you harass someone to get your way, you are using negative reinforcement *Use a lot of negative reinforcement in our relationships* Two ways that negative reinforcement can be used t Escape Conditioning-Avoidance subject can cut short or terminate the aversive stimulus. -They always get some! ? If you let your significant other get their way, you are using escape conditioning Know the two process Theory of Avoidance Conditioning p. 240 Avoidance Conditioning- If they respond in time, they can avoid the aversive stimulus completely -Make response early, can avoid aversive stimulus altogether ? Don’t go to dentist and tooth is hurting you are using escape conditioning; however if you go to the dentist for usual checkups, you are using avoidance conditioning Be able to define and recognize examples of the following operant conditioning phenomena: Process & Definition Description in CC Description in OC Shaping- Consist of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response CS and UCS are paired, gradually resulting in CR Responding gradually increases b/c of reinforcement, possible through shaping Extinction- Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency CS is presented alone until it no longer elicits CR Responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated Stimulus Generalization- An organism’s responding to stimuli other than the original stimulus used in conditioning CR is elicited by new stimulus that resembles original CS Responding increases in the presence of new stimulus that resembles original discriminative stimulus Stimulus Discrimination- An organism’s lack of response to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus used in conditioning CR is not elicited by new stimulus that resembles original CS Responding does not increase in the presence of new stimulus that resembles original discriminative stimulus Punishment Natural consequences of your behavior? Outfit (being mad fun of), bad meals Other punishing agents? Strong emotional responses -Physical punishment leads to aggressive behavior -Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. -Typically involves presentation of an aversive stimulus (spanking a child) -However, punishment may involve the removal of a rewarding stimulus (Taking away a child’s TV-watching privileges) -Confusion involves the tendency to equate punishment with disciplinary procedures -Operant Model= punishment occurs anytime undesirable consequences weaken a response tendency. *One key problem with punishment is that it can have unintended side effects -Operant conditioning suggest that disciplinary goals can often be accomplished more effectively by reinforcing desirable behavior than by punishing undesirable behavior Know when Dr. B. considers punishment to be appropriate. Stop bad behaviors in the bud Eliminate dangerous behaviors Know the three reasons that most of society’s punishment is ineffective. 1. Not given immediately- Delay in punishment tends to undermine its impact 2. Not given consistently (each time the behavior occurs)- Punish the response every time it occurs 3. Level of punishment is to severe or too light- Severe punishment more effective in weakening unwanted responses, they also increase the likelihood of undesirable side effects Be able to define and recognize examples Intermittent Schedules of reinforcement (Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval & variable interval). A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer • Continuous Reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced. -To shape and establish a new response before moving on to more r realistic schedules involving intermittent reinforcement • Intermittent or partial reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time; organisms respond longer after removal of reinforcers when a response has been reinforced only some of the time - Ratio Schedules= require the organism to make designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer - Fixed Ratio Schedule= the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of reinforced responses ? A sales person receives a bonus for every 4th set of books sold -Variable Ratio Schedule= the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses ? Slot machine in a casino pays off once every 6 tries on average -Fixed interval schedule=reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed times interval has elapsed ? Man washing clothes checks to see whether each load is finished. Reward (clean clothes) is available only after a fixed time interval (how long its takes washer) has elapsed, and checking responses during the interval are not reinforced. -Variable-interval schedule=the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed ? A person repeatedly dials a busy phone number (getting through is the reinforcer) Be able to define and recognize examples of situation that suggest evolutionary influence on conditioning. Instinctive Drift- occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes Conditioned Taste Aversion- manipulated kinds of stimuli preceding the onset of nausea and other noxious experiences in rats, using radiation to artificially induce the nausea Preparedness- involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others. -Why certain phobias are vastly more common than others Understand the concept of Observational Learning. Observational Learning- occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models Know Bandura’s 4 basic processes in observational learning. Attention- Learn through observation Retention-Store mental representation of what you have witnessed Reproduction-your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behavior. Motivation—your motivation to do something, whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you Know the difference between Acquisition & Performance -Bandura points out people have many learned responses that they may or may not perform, depending on the situation -Acquisition=of a learned response -Performance=of that response -Maintains that reinforcement affects which responses are actually preformed more than which responses are acquired Chapter 7 Human Memory Be able to define and recognize examples of the four memory steps as outlined in class: Perception- Encoding- involves forming a memory code; requires attention ?Emphasize how a word looks, sounds, means Storage- involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time; isn’t enough to guarantee that you’ll remember something; you need to be able to get information out of storage Retrieval- involves recovering information from memory stores Know the levels of processing as summarized by Figure 7.4 Know how encoding may be enriched including the methods of Elaboration, Visual Imagery, and Self-Referent Encoding. (pp. 264-266) Elaboration- is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding ?Read that phobias caused by classical conditioning, you apply this to your own fear of spiders -Often consists of thinking examples that illustrate an idea Visual Imagery- The creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered-can also be used to enrich encoding ?Juggler=someone who juggles balls -Provides a second kinds of memory code Self-Referent Encoding- involves deciding or whether information is personally relevant Know the names, the components, and the function of the Atkinson and Shiffin Model as outlined in Figure 7.8. Know the capacity, duration and pertinent facts about each. Know about flashbulb memory. Be able to define and recognize examples of recall and recognition tests. Recall-measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce information on their own without any cues ?Write down as many words as you recalled Recognition-measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options. Herman Ebbinghaus- first person to conduct scientific studied of forgetting, published series of insightful memory studies forgetting curve- graphs retention and forgetting over time Be able to define and recognize examples of the following explanation of human forgetting: Ineffective coding- information in question may never have been inserted into memory in the first place Decay Theory- attributes forgetting to the impermanence of memory storage; proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time; passage of time produces forgetting Interference Theory-proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material Proactive Interference- occurs when previously learned information interferes with retention of new information Retroactive Interference-occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information Motivated Forgetting-Tendency to forget things one doesn’t want to think about Repression-refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious Know and recognize examples of: Retrograde Amnesia- involves the loss of memories for events that occurs prior to the onset of amnesia ? 25 year old, forgets previous 3 years Anterograde Amnesia- involves the loss of memories for events that occurs after the onset of amnesia?might suffer impaired ability to remember people you meets Implicit Memory- is apparent when retention is exhibited on task that does not require intentional remembering Explicit Memory- which involves intentional recollection of previous experiences Declarative- Handles factual information ? Words, definitions, names, dates, faces, etc Procedural Memory- memory for actions, skills operations and conditioned responses ?Typing, tying show Semantic Memory- contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned Episodic Memory- made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of person experiences Know and understand the processes and structures involved with the Memory Trace. Know the Biochemistry of Memory -Memory formation results in alterations in synaptic transmission at specific sites Know the role of Neural Circuitry in Memory -Richard E. Thompson showed that specific memories may depend on localized neural circuits in the brain -Memories may create unique, reusable pathways in the brain along which signals flow -Key link in this circuit is a microscopic spot in the cerebellum Know the brain structures in the Anatomy of Memory -Case of organic amnesia-extensive memory loss due to head injury-are another source of clues about the physiological bases of memory